AP PSYCHOLOGY NOTES 5/18/15

Intelligence

• the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

Multiple Intelligence- Howard Gardner disagreed with Spearman and discovered this from a study of savants

There are 8 parts to Multiple Intelligence:

1. Visual/Spatial
2. Verbal/Linguistic
3. Logical/Mathematical
4. Bodily/Kinesthetic
5. Musical/Rhythmic
6. Interpersonal
7. Intrapersonal
8. Natural

Sternberg's 3 Aspects of Intelligence

1. Analytically- academic and problem solving
2. Creative- generative
3. Practical- needed for everyday tasks

Emotional Intelligence (EQ)

• "social intelligence"
• ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotion
• EQ>IQ

Brain Size and Intelligence

• .15 (Small) correlation between brain size and intelligence

How do we Assess Intelligence?

• Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon created a concept called mental age
• Originally was to help children but is used to label them
• IQ= Mental Age/Chronological Age*100
• ineffective on adults

Modern Test for Mental Abilities

• Wechsler Adult Intelligence scale made of 11 subtests and cues us into strengths by using factor analysis

Aptitude vs Achievement

Aptitude- test to predict future performance

Achievement- test to see what a person has learned

Three parts to Construct Intelligence

1. Standardized
2. Reliable
3. Valid

Standardization- test must be pre-tested to a small sample of people

Flynn Effect- Intelligence test performance has been rising

Reliability- results are consistent over time

Validity- extent to which a test measures what is supposed to be measured

1. Content validity- does the test sample a behavior of interest?
2. Predictive validity-  does the test predict future behavior

Test Bias

• Test discriminate

LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT

Language- spoken or gestured words to make meaning

Phonemes- smallest distinctive sound unit

Morphemes- In a language the smallest unit that carries meaning (prefixes & suffixes)

Grammar- a system of rules in language to communicate

Semantics- rules where we get meaning for language

Syntax- rules for combining words into sentences

Language Development

• Babbling Stage- (3-4 months) infant makes spontaneous sounds
• 1 word stage- (1-2 yrs) uses one word to communicate big meaning
• 2 word stage- (2 yrs) uses two words to speak (telegraphic speech)

Skinner- thought we explain language development thought social learning theory

Chomsky- learn language too quickly. have a "learning box" for learning human language

Whorf's Linguistic Relativity- idea that language determines the way we think (not vice versa)

Thinking

Cognition- everything around thinking, knowing, and remembering

Concepts- mental grouping of similar ideas etc.

Prototypes- examples

How do we solve problems?

Trial & Error- methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

Heuristics rules of thumb for problem solving

1. Representative- likelihood based on prototype
2. Availability- estimate likelihood of events on our memory

Insight- sudden realization for a solution

Obstacles to problem solving

• Confirmation Bias- tendency to search for info that confirms ones preconception
• Match Problem (Fixation)- inability to see a problem from a different perspective
• Mental Set- tendency to approach a problem in a particular way if it worked in past
• Functional Fixedness- tendency to think of things only in their usual function
• Overconfidence- more confident than correct
• Framing- way an issue is proposed
• Belief Bias- pre-existing beliefs to go against logic
• Belief Perseverance- clinging to initial beliefs even after being proven wrong

MEMORY

Memory- persistence of learning over time (3 parts)

1. Encoding- processing of info
2. Storage- retention of info
3. Retrieval- taking info out of storage

Recall vs Recognition

Recall- retrieve info from memory

Recognition- identify target from many

Flash Bulb Memory- clear moment of emotionally significant event

Three types of Memory

1. Sensory- initial record of sensory info stored for an instant
2. Short Term- holds a few items briefly, holds up to 7 digits (audio, visual, and integration of audio and visual)
3. Long Term- permanent and limitless storage of memory

Two parts of Long Term

1. Explicit- episodic and semantic memory
2. Implicit- procedural and conditioned memory

Encoding Info

• Primary Effect
• Recency effect
• serial positioning effect

Spacing Effect- DON'T CRAM and Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve 

The way we encode

• Visual- encode images
• Acoustic- encode sound
• Semantic- encode meaning

Consturctive Memory- memory not always what they seem

Forgetting

• Retroactive Interference- new info out old info
• Proactive Interference- old info out new info

Storing Memories

• Long term Potential- long lasting enhancement in signal transmission between 2 neurons that results form stimulating them synchronously 

SLEEP 

Sleep- a state of consciousness, less aware of surroundings

Biological Rhythms

• Annual Cycles- seasonal variations
• 28 day: menstrual cycle
• 24 hour: circadian rhythm
• 90 minute cycle: sleep cycle

Circadian Rhythm

• 24 hour clock

Sleep Stages

• 5 stages 
• 90-100 minutes
• 1st 4 are Non Rem sleep
• fifth is rem sleep

1. kind of awake and asleep, Theta waves produced, few minutes
2. "baseline" sleep, 90 minutes, 45-60% of sleep, Theta waves slower, sleep spindls
3. 3 & 4 slow sleep waves, produce delta waves, feel groggy, body restoration and development
4. REM sleep (Rapid Eye Movement) Brain is very active, paradoxical sleep, dreams, body is paralyzed, 20-25% of sleep, vivid dreams, go back to S2

LEARNING

• most learning we do is associative learning

3 main types

1. Classical/Operant conditioning
2. Observational learning/ latent learning
3. Abstract learning/ insight learning

Classical conditioning- started with Ivan Pavlov ( 5 terms)

1. acquisition- ucs causes the cr becoming the cs
2. extinction- the diminishing of a cr
3. spontaneous recovery- reappearance of a cr
4. generalization-  once a a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the cs to cause similar responses
5. discrimination- ability to distinguish between cs and other stimuli

• Unconditioned stimulus (ucs)- stimulus that naturally causes a response
• Unconditioned response (ucr)- natural response to ucs
• Conditioned stimulus(cs)- stimulus that now triggers a response
• Conditioned response (cr)- learned response to a stimulus

AP Psychology Notes 4/7/15

Nervous System

• the entire nervous system is composed of neurons
• Resting Potential- slightly negative charge. reach the threshold when enough neurotransmitters reach dendrites. go into action potential (firing)
• The all or none response- idea that either the neuron fires or it does not, no part way firing
• Neurotransmitters- chemical messengers released by terminal buttons through synapse
• Peripheral Nervous System-  all nerves not encased in bone
• Somatic Nervous System- controls voluntary muscle movement, use motor neurons
• Autonomic Nervous System- controls the automatic function of the body. Divided into two categories the sympathetic and parasympathetic
• Sympathetic- Nervous system- fight or flight response. Accelerates heart rate, breathing, pupil dilates, and digestion slows
• Parasympathetic Nervous System- automatically slows after stress event. Heart rate and breathing slows, and opposite of sympathetic

Neurotransmitters

• Acetylcholine- motor movement and memory. Lack leads to Alzheimer's
• Dopamine-motor movement and alertness. lack leads to Parkinson. Surplus leads to Schizophrenia
• Serotonin- mood control and a decrease leads to clinical depression
• Norepinephrine- control alertness and arousal. Lack leads to depression. Surplus leads to manic symptoms
• GABA- major inhibitory neurotransmitters. Lack leads to tremors, seizing, insomnia
• Glutamate- major excitatory neurotransmitters involved in memory. Surplus leads to migraines

Drugs

• Agonist- make neuron fire
• Antagonist- stop neural firing
• Reuptake Inhibitors- prevent neurotransmitters from entering the neuron

Types of Neurons

• Afferent Neuron- take info from senses to brain
• Inter Neuron- take messages from sensory neurons to other parts of the brain or to motor neurons
• Motor neuron- take info from brain to body

Sensory neurons take inf up through the spine to the brain. some reactions occur when sensory neurons reach just spinal cord
Endocrine System- system of glands that secrete hormones. Similar to nervous system, except hormones work a lot slower than neurotransmitters
Major Endocrine Glands

• Thyroid gland- affects metabolism
• Parathyroids- regulate calcium in blood
• Adrenal glands- called medulla fight or flight
• Pancreas- regulate sugar level
• Ovary
• Testicles
• Pituitary gland- secrete many hormones, some affect others  growth
• Hypothalamus- brain

Ways we Study the Brain

• Accident
• Phineas Gage Story- personality changed after accident. Different part of the brain control aspects of who we are
• Lesions- Removal or destruction of part of brain. Frontal Lobotomy
• Electroencephalogram- detects brain waves through their electrical output. mainly in sleep but can be awake
• CAT Scan- 3D X-ray of brain. good for tumor locating but tells us nothing about function
• MRI- more detailed picture of brain using magnetic field to knock electrons off axis. takes many pics and turns pics into a movie like production
• PET Scan- scans and measures how much of a chemical the brain is using

Brain Structures

• Hindbrain- structure on top of spinal cord. Controls basic bio structures
• Medulla-  controls involuntary actions such as heart beating, breathing, etc
• Pons- located above medulla. connects hindbrain and midbrain with forebrain
• Cerebellum- the little brain. controls fine motor movements
• Forebrain- makes us human. Largest part
• Limbic System- hypothalamus, pituitary gland, amygdala, hippocampus
• Cerebral Cortex- made of gray mater used for coordinating
• Glial cells- support brain cells. wrinkles called fissures
• Frontal Lobe- abstract thought and emotional control. contains motor cortex
• Broca's area- controls muscles that make speech
• Broca's aphasia- unable to make movements to talk
• Parietal lobe- contains sensory cortex. made of mostly association areas
• Association areas- any area not used for motor or sensory movements
• Occipital lobe- contains visual cortex. interprets messages from our eyes into images

Development

• rooting- when newborn is touched on the cheek will turn to stimulation
• grasping- baby will grasp object
• Moro(startle) when startled a baby will fling limbs then retract
• Babinski(foot) when a baby foot is stroked, will spread its toes
• Maturation-  physical growth process
• Motor Development- learn to roll over, sit up , crawl, and walk
• cognition- all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering
• Cognitive development- Jean Piaget
• Schema- way we interpret world
• Assimilation- incorporating new experiences into existing schema
• Accommodation- change in schema to adapt ot new info

4 stages of cognitive development

• sensorimotor-experiences through sense. object permanence
• Preoperational- use language to represent words. egocentric. conservation
• Concrete operational- show concept of conservation. Reversibility
• Formal operational- abstract reasoning

Criticism of Piaget- do not learn in stages but gradually

There are three types of parenting such as authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative. Babies go through development where they show much dependence on the parent like stranger anxiety.

Origins of Attachment

• Harry Harlow- showed that monkeys needed touch or body contact to form attachment
• a critical period is shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produce proper development
• Origins of Attachment: Responsive parenting- Mary Ainsworth "Strange Situation" 1.secure 2. avoidant 3. anxious/ambivalent 
• Secure attachment (ideal)- child show distress when parent leaves, seek contact at the reunion, explore when parent is gone, play and greet when parent is present
• Insecure Attachment- lack of one or more of these traits
• Stranger Anxiety- fear of strangers that infants commonly display
• Separation Anxiety- distress the infant shows when object of attachment leaves

Parenting Styles

• Authoritarian parents- rules and obedience
• permissive parents- submit to child desire
• Authoritative parent- compromise

Adolescence- transition from child to adult

Puberty- period of sexual maturation, becomes capable of reproducing

Primary sex characteristics

2nd sex characteristics- widening of hips, deeper voices, breast

Landmarks of puberty- menarche for girls and ejaculation for guys

Crystallized Intelligence- increase in knowledge as you age

Fluid Intelligence- solve problems quickly and think abstractly

Alzheimer disease- progressive and ireversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory

Death

1. denial
2. anger
3. bargaining
4. depression
5. acceptance



AP Psychology Notes 3
Social psychology- the study of how we think about influence and relate to another
Attribution theory- give a casual explanation for someone's behavior, credit behavior to situation or, persons disposition
Fundamental Attribution Error- tendency to underestimate the impact of a situation and overestimate the impact of disposition
Attitudes- belief or feeling that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to something
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon- tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to later agree with a larger request
Door-in-face phenomenon- tendency for people who say no to a huge request, to agree with a smaller one
Zimbardo Prison Study- Role playing affects attitudes what do you think happened when college students were made to take on roles
Cognitive Dissonance- to first disagree but to later agree to lower tension

 Social Influence
Conformity- adjust behavior to coincide with a  group standard
Conditions that strengthen conformity- one feels incompetent, at least three in a group, group is unanimous, one admires the group status, and one has no prior commitment
Social Facilitation- a person performs better around others
Yerkes-Dodson Law- optimal level of arousal for the best performance of any task
Social Loafying- a person performs worse around others
DE individuation- loss of self-awareness and self restraint
Group polarization- concept that a group's attitude is one of extremes and rarely moderate
Groupthink- mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision making group overrides sense
Self-fulfilling prophecy- one persons belief about others leads one to act as others do

Social Relations
Prejudice- unjustifiable attitude towards a group of people
Ingroup- "us" share common identity
Ingroup bias- tendency to favor ones group
Outgroup- "them" different than one's group
Motivation- a psychological process that directs and maintains your behavior toward a goal
Motives-  needs, wants, interests, and desires
Motivation
Instinct theory- motivated by our inborn automated behaviors
Biological Motives- hunger, thirst, sex, sleep, and excretory
Social motives- achievement, order, play, autonomy, affilitation
Drive theory- biological internal motivation (homeostasis)
Incentive theory- environmental motivation  (not much homeostasis
Drive Reduction Theory- individuals experience a need or drive they're motivated to reduce that need or drive. motivation comes from the person
Arousal- level of alertness
Hypothalamus
Lateral hypothalamus- when stimulated it makes you hungry
Ventromedial hypothalamus- feel full
hunger- environment factors
environmental cue- odor, commercials, talking
Set Point Theory-hypothalamus acts as thermostat, maintain stable weight, activate the lateral for diets and activate ventromedial to gain weight

Eating Disorder
Bulimia Nervosa- characterized by binging and purging
Anorexia Nervosa-  starving to below 85% normal body weight
Obesity- severely overweight

Emotion
Emotion-a response of the whole organism
Theories of emotion
James-Lange Theory of emotion- experience of emotion is awareness of physiological responses to emotion arousing stimuli
Cannon Bard Theory-  emotion arousing stimuli simultaneously trigger
Schechter's two factors theory of emotion- experience emotion one must physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal

Emotion lie Detector
polygraph- machine commonly used in attempts to detect lies, measures several physical signs (perspiration, cardiovascular, breathing changes)
The Amygdala- a neural key to fear learning
Catharsis- a release of emotion and tension
Feel-good, do-good phenomenon- what to help when in a good mood
Adaptation level phenomenon- form judgments relative to a neutral level
Relative Deprivation- one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself